Ways of Living: Ethics Across Classical Philosophies @Miikka11212
Ethics is often discussed as a question of right and wrong, but in classical philosophy, it gets deeper and more complicated than a set of rules or commandments. It is a question of how we should live, what kind of life is worth living, and what it means to live rightly. Throughout the semester, we covered thinkers from Greece, China, and India all approached this question from different angles, shaped by their cultures, histories, and metaphysical assumptions. This essay aims to inform and explain how different classical philosophers in different regions understood ethical living, explore each of theirs epistemological and metaphysical foundations, and the diversity of ethical thought.
To begin with Epistemology, a study of nature, origin, and limits of knowledge, plays a fundamental role on how these classical thinkers arrive at their ethical frameworks. In Greek philosophy, Plato distinguishes between knowledge and belief, arguing that true knowledge is of the unchanging forms, while opinions are about the fluctuating world of the senses. He did several contraries on empiricism and rationalism, with one being knowledge from sensual experience and one based on reason. In the Republic, Plato describes whether someone lives in a dream-like, illusory state, which refers to belief, or in reality, as to knowledge,
“So wouldn’t we be right to describe the difference between their mental states by saying that while this person has knowledge, the other one has beliefs?” (Republic, 476e).
This comes right after a contrast between two kinds of people, one who only sees particulars but not beauty itself, and one who sees forms, which is the real world and knowledge. Another Greek philosopher, Aristotle also propose on how knowledge is formed. He thinks that knowledge is inductive,
“We must get to know the primary premises by induction; for the method by which even sense-perception implants the universal is inductive” (Posterior Analytics, 100b).
Aristotle is saying knowledge and sensual experience are not against each other, but knowledge derives from experience. Knowledge begins with perception, then comes memory and experience. Both Plato and Aristotle argue that true knowledge is essential for living rightly. For Plato, distinguishing knowledge from belief allows one to escape illusion and align with eternal truths like justice itself. For Aristotle, knowledge emerges from experience and leads to true understanding. In both views, to live well, one must first learn to see clearly.
In Chinese epistemology from Chuang Tzu, he proposed a totally different view, instead of focusing on what knowledge is, he focuses on how knowledge is like as a matter. In Chuang Tzu:
“How can I know that what I say I know is not actually what I don’t know? Likewise, how can I know that what I think I don’t know is not really what I do know?” (Chuang Tzu, 283).
He explains that knowledge is skeptical and relativistic, instable. And since no one can understand ultimately what another one is thinking or understand, there might not be right and wrong and knowledge can be unknown and endless. For him, to live well is to let go of rigid judgements, embrace the constant transformation of things. Similar to Tao Te Ching, instead of seeking fixed truths, no matter beliefs or true knowledge, the wise person lives freely.
Stepping into metaphysics, another major branch of classical philosophy. Metaphysics deals with the first principles of things, including abstract concepts such as being, knowing, time, and space. The Tao Te Ching teaches that the Way (Tao) is the subtle, formless origin of all things, it’s too vast and ineffable to be captured in words or fixed principles. In the very beginning,
“The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name” (Tao Te Ching, 1).
On top of Chuang Tzu, the Tao says instead of rigid doctrines, the text promotes harmony, spontaneity, and humility, urging people to act in accordance with the Tao through Wu Wei “non-action” or effortless action. To live rightly, therefore, is not to follow rigid rules, but to return to simplicity, emptiness, and natural harmony, aligning with the deeper rhythm of the universe rather than resisting it.
Indian metaphysics on the other hand, especially in the Buddhist tradition, teaches that the world is interdependent, impermanent, and ultimately empty of a fixed self. To sum up, they believe that nothing exists on its own and everything is in constant change, kind of similar to the Tao. Nargajuna deepens this view by rejecting both extremes, that either anything truly exists (externalism), or anything is completely nonexistent (nihilism). In this part, Nargajuna states that
“There is no difference at all between Nirvana and Samsara.” (Gotama, Chapter XXV, XIX).
For Nagarjuna, all things are empty of inherent essence, but that doesn’t mean they’re false, it means they depend on other things to exist. This emptiness is not something to fear, but to recognize, because
“The bliss consists in the cessation of all thought, in the quiescence of plurality.”
. Indian metaphysics teaches us to let go of ego, craving, and fixed identities. Nirvana is not found in escaping to another world, but in understanding the nature of this one. To live rightly is to live with non-attachment, mindfulness, and compassion, because we see that nothing exists independently and lasts forever.
At last, the topic of ethics itself. Ethics discusses on how a person should act, what principles guide our choices, how we live day to day, basically what it means to live well. So how do these philosophers approach the question of ethics? In Plato’s Gorgias, Socrates and Callicles debate whether justice and self-control lead to a better life, or whether power and indulgence do. Socrates insists that ethical life requires mastering oneself, while Callicles argues that real success comes from satisfying one’s desires. Aristotle moves beyond this and defines the ethical life as achieving eudaimonia flourishing through reason, virtue, and habit. In contrast, Mencius believes humans are naturally good, and that ethics is about returning to this goodness through nurturing environments. Xunzi, however, claims human nature is evil and only disciplined structures like rituals and laws create moral order. Indian thought emphasises on inner duty and encourages detachment from personal gain, suggesting that ethical living is rooted in discipline and letting go of desires. Despite their differences, all these views point to a common concern: how we live matters, and ethics offers the framework for becoming fully human, not by instinct alone, but through thoughtful cultivation of the self.
In conclusion, ethics is a widely discussed topic throughout classical philosophies. While metaphysics and epistemology are deeply connected to ethics, so too is ethics shaped by our understanding of reality and knowledge. These philosophers do not just teach us abstract theories, they guide us on how to think, how to judge, and ultimately how to live a righteous life. Across traditions, whether through reason, discipline, or harmony, ethics is the bridge between thought and action, showing us what it means to be fully human.
Lastly I wanna include my favourite mathematical formula, it is the Gamma functions, it expands factorial on real numbers and complex numbers.
$$\Gamma (z) = \int^{\infty}_{0} t^{z-1} e^{-t} dt$$
Citation
Plato – Republic
Plato. Republic. Translated by R. Waterfield, Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 196–202, 233–245. Provided in course materials.
Chuang Tzu – Epistemology
Chuang Tzu. The Book of Chuang Tzu. Translated by Martin Palmer, Penguin, 1996, pp. 8–20. Provided in course materials.
Tao Te Ching – Laozi
Laozi. Tao Te Ching. Translated and compiled by Wing-Tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 1969, pp. 139–
150, 152–154, 156–164, 166, 172. Provided in course materials.
Nyaya Sutras & Nagarjuna
Gotama and Nagarjuna. Nyaya Sutras and Madhyamaka Karika. Provided in course materials as “Nyaya Sutras & Nagarjuna.pdf.”
Buddhist Metaphysics
“Conditioned Genesis” and “Lalitavistara.” From Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, edited and translated by Edward Conze, Shambhala, 1990, pp.
65–70, 91–94, 158–161. Provided in course materials.